A Casting is a mechanism built into C that allows the programmer to force the conversion of data types. This may be needed because most C functions are very particular about the data types they process. A programmer may wish to override the default way the C compiler promotes data types.
# In arithmetic expressions, to what data type will the C compiler promote a character?
It will promote it to an integer unless otherwise directed.
# What is the difference between a statement and a block?
A statement is a single C expression terminated with a semicolon. A block is a series of statements, the group of which is enclosed in curly-braces.
# Increment the variable next three different ways.
next = next + 1;
and
next++;
and
next += 1;
# How is a comment formed in C.
Comments in C begin with a slash followed by an asterisk. Any text may then appear including newlines. The comment is finished with an asterisk followed by a slash. Example:
/* This is a comment */
# Can comments be nested?
Not in standard (K&R) C.
# From the standpoint of programming logic, what is the difference between a loop with the test at the top, and a loop where the test is at the bottom?
If the test is at the bottom, the body of the loop will always be executed at least once. When the test is at the top, the body of the loop may never be executed.
# Specify the skeletons of two C loops with the test at the top.
next = 0; /* setup */
while ( next < max) { /* test */ printf("Hello "); /* body */ next++; /* update */ } and for ( next = 0; next < max; next++) /* setup,test */ /* and update */ printf("Hello"); /* body */ # Specify a C loop with the test at the bottom.
next = 0; /* setup */
do { printf("Hello"); /* body */ next++; /* update */ } while ( next < max); /* test */ # What is the switch statement?
It is C's form of multiway-conditional (a.k.a case statement in Pascal).
# What does a break statement do? Which control structures use it?
The break statement unconditionally ends the execution of the smallest enclosing while, do, for or switch statement.
# In a loop, what is the difference between a break and continue statement?
The break terminates the loop. The continue branches immediately to the test portion of the loop.
# Where may variables be defined in C?
Outside a function definition (global scope, from the point of definition downward in the source code). Inside a block before any statements other than variable declarations (local scope with respect to the block).
# What is the difference between a variable definition and a variable declaration?
A definition tells the compiler to set aside storage for the variable. A declaration makes the variable known to parts of the program that may wish to use it. A variable might be defined and declared in the same statement.
# What is the purpose of a function prototype?
A function prototype tells the compiler to expect a given function to be used in a given way. That is, it tells the compiler the nature of the parameters passed to the function (the quantity, type and order) and the nature of the value returned by the function.
# What is type checking?
The process by which the C compiler ensures that functions and operators use data of the appropriate type(s). This form of check helps ensure the semantic correctness of the program.
# To what does the term storage class refer?
This is a part of a variable declaration that tells the compiler how to interpret the variable's symbol. It does not in itself allocate storage, but it usually tells the compiler how the variable should be stored.
# List C's storage classes and what they signify.
static - Variables are defined in a nonvolatile region of memory such that they retain their contents though out the program's execution.
register - Asks the compiler to devote a processor register to this variable in order to speed the program's execution. The compiler may not comply and the variable looses it contents and identity when the function it which it is defined terminates.
extern - Tells the compiler that the variable is defined in another module.
volatile - Tells the compiler that other programs will be modifying this variable in addition to the program being compiled. For example, an I/O device might need write directly into a program or data space. Meanwhile, the program itself may never directly access the memory area in question. In such a case, we would not want the compiler to optimize-out this data area that never seems to be used by the program, yet must exist for the program to function correctly in a larger context.
# State the syntax for the printf() and scanf() functions. State their one crucial difference with respect to their parameters.
Where fmtStr tells printf() how to format the variable list that follows. var1 through varN may be variables of any base type.
scanf( fmtStr, &var1, &var2, &varN);
This routine is the input compliment to printf().
scanf() requires the address of each variable instead of the variable's value (as in printf()). This is subtle source of serious bugs.
# With respect to function parameter passing, what is the difference between call-by-value and call-by-reference? Which method does C use?
In the case of call-by-reference, a pointer reference to a variable is passed into a function instead of the actual value. The function's operations will effect the variable in a global as well as local sense. Call-by-value (C's method of parameter passing), by contrast, passes a copy of the variable's value into the function. Any changes to the variable made by function have only a local effect and do not alter the state of the variable passed into the function.
# What is a structure and a union in C?
A structure is an aggregate data type. It combines one or more base or aggregate data types into a package that may treated as a whole. A structure is like a record in other languages. A union combines two or more data types in the same area of storage. The contents of a union may be one data type at one time and another type at a different time. A union is sometimes called a trick- record.
# Define a structure for a simple name/address record.
struct nameAddr {
char name[30];
char addr[30];
char city[20];
char state[3];
char zip[5];
};
# What does the typedef keyword do?
This keyword provides a short-hand way to write variable declarations. It is not a true data typing mechanism, rather, it is syntactic "sugar coating."
# Use typedef to make a short-cut way to declare a pointer to the nameAddr structure above. Call it addrPtr.
typedef struct nameAddr *addrPtr;
# Declare a variable with addrPtr called address.
addrPtr address;
# Assuming the variable address above, how would one refer to the city portion of the record within a C expression?
address->city
# What is the difference between: #include
# What is #ifdef used for?
It is used for condition compilation. Specifically the source code between #ifdef and #endif (or #else) is compiled if the associated symbol is defined to the compiler.
# How do you define a constant in C?
The C language itself has no provision for constants. However, its companion program, the preprocessor, can be used to make manifest constants. It does this through the use of the #define keyword.
# Why can't you nest structure definitions?
Trick question: You can nest structure definitions.
# Can you nest function definitions?
No. (You can in Pascal, a close relative to C.)
# What is a forward reference?
It is a reference to a variable or function before it is defined to the compiler. The cardinal rule of structured languages is that everything must be defined before it can be used. There are rare occasions where this is not possible. It is possible (and sometimes necessary) to define two functions in terms of each other. One will obey the cardinal rule while the other will need a forward declaration of the former in order to know of the former's existence. Confused?
# What are the following and how do they differ: int, long, float and double?
int An integer, usually +/- 215 in magnitude.
long A larger version of int, usually +/- 231 in magnitude.
float A single precision real (floating point) number. Magnitude varies.
double A double precision real number. Magnitude varies.
# Define a macro called SQR which squares a number.
#define SQR(x) (x * x)
(The parenthesis around "x * x" are extremely important because the macro may be expanded into a place where any embedded spaces could cause the compiler to misinterpret the expression. The consequences could range from a pesky syntax error to wrong answers when the program is run.). Moral: The preprocessor does not know C.
# Is it possible to take the square-root of a number in C. Is there a square-root operator in C?
Yes. There is no square-root operator; such computation is performed though the use of a function.
# Using fprintf() print a single floating point number right-justified in a field of 20 spaces, no leading zeros, and 4 decimal places. The destination should be stderr and the variable is called num.
fprintf( stderr, "%-20.4f", num);
# What is the difference between the & and && operators and the | and || operators?
& and | are bitwise AND and OR operators respectively. They are usually used to manipulate the contents of a variable on the bit level. && and || are logical AND and OR operators respectively. They are usually used in conditionals.
# What is the difference between the -> and . operators?
They both provide access to members of a structure or union. They differ in that -> is used when the variable is a pointer to a structure or union. The dot is used when the variable is itself the structure or union. The -> operator combines the pointer dereferencing operator with the member access operator; it is syntactic "sugar coating."
address->city is equivalent to (*address).city.
# What is the symbol for the modulus operator?
% (the percent symbol)
# From the standpoint of logic, what is the difference between the fragment:
if (next < max) next++; else next = 0; and the fragment: next += (next < max)? (1):(-next); Nothing. They are different ways to express the same logic. # What does the following fragment do?
while((d=c=getch(),d)!=EOF&&(c!='\t'||c!=' '||c!='\b')) *buff++ = ++c;
Do the following until either the end of standard input or the variable c takes on the value of a tab, space, or backspace character: Store the character that succeeds the character stored in c into the current location pointed by buff. Then increment buff to point to the next location in memory. Meanwhile, d is assigned the same value as c and it is the value of d that is used in the comparison to EOF.
# Is C case sensitive (ie: does C differentiate between upper and lower case letters)?
Yes.
# Specify how a filestream called inFile should be opened for random reading and writing. the file's name is in fileName.
inFile = fopen( fileName, "r+");
# What does fopen() return if successful. If unsuccessful?
Upon success fopen() returns a pointer to a filestream. Otherwise it returns the value of NULL.
# What is the void data type? What is a void pointer?
The void data type is used when no other data type is appropriate. A void pointer is a pointer that may point to any kind of object at all. It is used when a pointer must be specified but its type is unknown.
# Declare a pointer called fnc which points to a function that returns an unsigned long.
unsigned long (*fnc)();
# Declare a pointer called pfnc which points to a function that returns a pointer to a structure of type nameAddr.
struct nameAddr *(*pfnc)();
# It is possible for a function to return a character, an integer, and a floating point number. Is it possible for a function to return a structure? Another function?
No. However, it is possible to return pointers to structures and functions.
# What is the difference between an lvalue and an rvalue?
The lvalue refers to the left-hand side of an assignment expression. It must always evaluate to a memory location. The rvalue represents the right-hand side of an assignment expression; it may have any meaningful combination of variables and constants.
# Given the decimal number 27, how would one express it as a hexadecimal number in C?
0x1B
# What is malloc()?
This function allocates heap storage for dynamic data structures.
# What is the difference between malloc() and calloc()?
The malloc() function allocates raw memory given a size in bytes. On the other hand, calloc() clears the requested memory to zeros before return a pointer to it. (It can also compute the request size given the size of the base data structure and the number of them desired.)
# What kind of problems was C designed to solve?
C was designed to be a "universal" assembly language. It is used for producing system software such as operation systems, compilers/interpreters, device drivers, editors, DBMS's and similar things. It is not as well suited to application programs.
# write C code for deleting an element from a linked listy traversing a linked list efficient way of elimiating duplicates from an array
# Declare a void pointer
void *ptr;
# Make the pointer aligned to a 4 byte boundary in a efficient manner
assign the pointer to a long number and the number with 11...1100 add 4 to the number
# What is a far pointer (in DOS)
# Write an efficient C code for 'tr' program. 'tr' has two command line arguments. They both are strings of same length. tr reads an input file, replaces each character in the first string with the corresponding character in the second string. eg. 'tr abc xyz' replaces all 'a's by 'x's, 'b's by 'y's and so on.
have an array of length 26.
put 'x' in array element corr to 'a'
put 'y' in array element corr to 'b'
put 'z' in array element corr to 'c'
put 'd' in array element corr to 'd'
put 'e' in array element corr to 'e'
and so on.
the code
while (!eof)
{
c = getc();
putc(array[c - 'a']);
}
# Write C code to implement strtok() 'c' library function.
# Implement strstr(), strcpy(), strtok() etc
# Reverse a string.
# Given a linked list which is sorted, how will you insert in sorted way.
# Write a function that allocates memory for a two-dimensional array of given size (parameter x & y)
# Write source code for printHex(int i) in C/C++
# Write a function that finds the last instance of a character in a string.
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